State-Owned Public Works

⁸⁵ In France, the funds for repairing high roads are under the executive power.

Those funds consist in:

• a certain number of days labour which most rural people in Europe are obliged to give for highway repair
• a part of the state’s general revenue which the king allocates for road repairs.

⁸⁶ By the ancient law of France and other parts of Europe, rural labour was under a local or provincial magistrate.

It was not immediately dependent on the intendant from the king’s council.

But nowadays, the intendant manages:

• the people’s labour, and
• whatever other fund the king assigns to repair the high roads in any province.

In the progress of despotism, the executive power gradually absorbs every other power in the state. It assumes to itself the management of every branch of public revenue.

Post-roads are roads between the principal towns.

In France, the great post-roads are generally kept in good order. In some provinces, they are even much superior to most English turnpike roads.

Cross-roads are the most common roads in the countryside.

• They are entirely neglected.
• In many places, they are absolutely impassable by heavy carriage.
• In some places, it is even dangerous to travel on them on horseback. Mules are the only safe transportation.

The proud minister of an ostentatious court might often launch large projects, such as a great highway to be seen by the principal nobility.

• Their applauses flatter the minister’s vanity and even support his interest at court.

But a great magistrate is not interested in building little works which cannot excite any traveler’s admiration even if they are extremely useful. Under such an administration, such small works are almost always neglected.

⁸⁷ In China and other Asian governments, the executive power manages:

• the repair of high roads
• the maintenance of navigable canals.

Those repairs and maintenance are constantly recommended in the instructions given to each provincial governor. His attention to these instructions regulates the court’s judgement on his conduct.

Those public works are very much attended to in those countries, particularly in China.

It was pretended that the high roads and most especially the navigable canals very much exceed those in Europe. The accounts of those works transmitted to Europe were generally drawn up by weak and wondering travelers, frequently by stupid and lying missionaries.

They would perhaps not appear to be so wonderful if:

• they were examined by more intelligent eyes, and
• their accounts were reported by more faithful witnesses.

Bernier’s account of similar works in India falls very much short of what was reported by other travelers. They were more disposed to the marvelous than he was.

Like in France, those countries might attend to the great roads while neglect all the rest. The great roads are likely to be the subjects of conversation at the court and in the capital.

In China, India, and other Asian governments, the sovereign’s revenue arises from a land-tax or land-rent. It rises or falls with the rise and fall of the produce of the land.

The sovereign’s great interest is his revenue. In such countries, it is necessarily and immediately connected with:

• the cultivation of the land, and
• the greatness and value of its produce.

To render that produce as great and valuable as possible, it is necessary to:

• provide it with an extensive a market as possible, and
• establish the freest, easiest, and least expensive communication within the country.

It can be only done by the best roads and navigable canals.

In Europe, the sovereign’s revenue does not arise chiefly from a land-tax or land-rent. In all the great European kingdoms, most of it may ultimately depend on the produce of the land. But that dependency is not so immediate nor so evident.

In Europe, the sovereign does not feel so directly called on to:

• increase the amount and value of the produce of the land,
• maintain good roads and canals to provide the most extensive market for that produce.

In some parts of Asia, this public police is very properly managed by the executive power. But presently, it is improbable that it could be managed by the executive power in any part of Europe.

Federalism and Local Governments

⁸⁸ A local or provincial revenue is managed by a local or provincial administration. A state revenue is managed by the executive power.

The following public works are always better maintained by a local or public revenue:

• Those which cannot maintain themselves, and
• Those which benefits are confined to a district.

If the streets of London were lit and paved at the national expence, could they be so well lit and paved as today so cheaply?

Currently, the expence is raised by a local tax on the people of each London street, parish, or district.

If they were paid from the national revenue, it would be raised by a tax on all citizens. Most of them would derive no benefit from the lighting and paving of those streets.

⁸⁹ The abuses of the local and provincial administration on a local and provincial revenue may appear enormous.

In reality, they are almost always very trifling compared to the abuses of the national revenue of a great empire.

Local and provincial abuses are much more easily corrected. Under the local or provincial justices of the peace in Great Britain, people in the countryside are obliged to give 6 days labour for highway repairs.

It is not always very judiciously applied. But it is rarely exacted with any cruelty or oppression.

In France under the intendants, the application is not always more judicious. The exaction is frequently the most cruel and oppressive. Such Corvées are one of the principal instruments of tyranny of those officers.