The Charges of Public Instruction

Two questions have been raised in political economy:

1. Is the public interested in the cultivation of science in all its branches?
2. Is it necessary, that the public should spend to teach those branches?

Whatever be the position of man in society, he is in constant dependence upon the three kingdoms of nature. His food, his clothing, his medicines, every object either of business or of pleasure, is subject to fixed laws.

The better those laws are understood, the more benefit will accrue to society.

Every individual, from the common mechanic, that works in wood or clay, to the prime minister that regulates with the dash of his pen the agriculture, the breeding of cattle, the mining, or the commerce of a nation, will perform his business the better, the better he understands the nature of things, and the more his understanding is enlightened.

For this reason, every advance of science is followed by an increase of social happiness. A new application of the lever, or of the power of wind or water, or even a method of reducing the friction of bodies, will, perhaps, have an influence on twenty different arts.

An uniformity of weights and measures, arranged upon mathematical principles, would be a benefit to the whole commercial world, if it were wise enough to adopt such an expedient.

An important discovery in astronomy or geology may possibly afford the means of ascertaining the longitude at sea with precision, which would be an immense advantage to navigation all over the world.

The naturalisation in Europe of a new botanical genus or species might possibly influence the comfort of many millions of individuals.

comparative merit, there is much unfairness to be apprehended from the esprit de corps of such communities.

Among the numerous classes of science, theoretical and practical, which it is the interest of the public to advance and promote, there are fortunately many, that individuals have a personal interest in pursuing, and which the public, therefore, is not called upon to pay the expense of teaching.

Every adventurer in any branch of industry is urged most strongly by self-interest to learn his business and whatever concerns it. The journeyman gains in his apprenticeship, besides manual dexterity, a variety of notions and ideas only to be learnt in the work-shop, and which can be no otherwise recompensed, than by the wages he will receive.

Encouragement may, with perfect safety, be held out to a mode of instruction of no small efficacy; I mean, the composition of good elementary 53 works. The reputation and profit of a good book in this class do not indemnify the labour, science, and skill, requisite to its composition. 54 A man must be a fool to serve the public in this line where the natural profit is so little proportioned to the benefit derived to the public.

The want of good elementary books will never be thoroughly supplied, until the public shall hold out temptations, sufficiently ample to engage first-rate talents in their composition. It does not answer to employ particular individuals for the express purpose; for the man of most talents will not always succeed the best= nor to offer specific premiums; for they are often bestowed on very imperfect productions, and the encouragement ceases the moment the premium is awarded. But merit in this kind should be paid proportionately to its degree, and always liberally.

A good work will thus be sure to be superseded by a better, till perfection is at last attained in each class.

There is no great expense incurred by liberally rewarding excellence; for it must always be extremely rare; and what is a great sum to an individual, is a small matter to the pockets of a nation.

But it is not every degree or class of knowledge, that yields a benefit to the individual, equivalent to that accruing to the public.

In treating above 51 of the profits of the man of science, I have shown the reason, why his talents are not adequately remunerated; yet theoretical is quite as useful to society as practical knowledge; for how could science ever be applied to the practical utility of mankind, unless it were discovered and preserved by the theorist? It would rapidly degenerate into mere mechanical habit, which must soon decline; and the downfall of the arts would pave the way for the return of ignorance and barbarism.

In every country that can at all appreciate the benefits to be derived from the enlargement of human faculties, it has been deemed by no means a piece of extravagance, to support academies and learned institutions, and a limited number of very superior schools, intended not as mere repositories of science, and of the most approved mode of instruction, but as a means of its still further extension.

But it requires some skill in the management, to prevent such establishments from operating as an impediment, instead of a furtherance, to the progress of knowledge, and as an obstruction rather than as an avenue to the improvement of education.

Long before the revolution, it had become notorious, that most of our French universities had been thus perverted from the intention of their founders.

All the principal discoveries were made elsewhere and most of them had to encounter the weight of their influence over the rising generation and credit with men in power. 52

These are the kinds of instruction most calculated to promote national wealth, and most likely to retrograde, if not in some measure supported by the public. There are others, which are essential to the softening of national manners, and stand yet more in need of that support.

When the useful arts have arrived at a high degree of perfection, and labour has been very generally and minutely subdivided, the occupation of the lowest classes of labourers is reduced to one or two operations, for the most part simple in themselves, and continually repeated= to these their whole thought and attention are directed; and from them they are seldom diverted by any novel or unforeseen occurrence= their intellectual faculties, being rarely or never called into play, must of course be degraded and brutified, and themselves rendered incapable of uttering two words of common sense out of their peculiar line of business, and utterly devoid of any generous ideas or elevated notions.

Elevation of mind is generated by enlarged views of men and things, and can never exist in a being incapable of conceiving the general bearings and connexions of objects.

A plodding mechanic can conceive no connexion between the inviolability of property and public prosperity, or how he can be more interested in that prosperity, than his more wealthy neighbour; but is apt to consider all these important benefits as so many encroach- ments on his rights and happiness.

A certain degree of education, of reading, of reflection while at work, and of intercourse From this example, we may see how dangerous it is, to en- trust them with any discretionary control.

If a candidate presents himself for examination, he must not be referred to teach- ers, who are at the same time judges and interested parties, sure to think well of their own scholars, and ill of those of every body else.

The merit of the candidate should alone decide, and not the place where he happens to have studied, nor the length of his probation; for to oblige a student in any science, medicine for instance, to learn it at a particular place, is, possibly, to prevent his learning it better elsewhere; and, to prescribe any fixed routine of study, is, possibly, to prevent his fixing a shorter road. Moreover, in deciding upon

retrograde, until it reached the confines of barbarism, before individuals had observed the operating cause of its decline.

with persons of his own condition, will open his mind to these conceptions, as well as introduce a little more delicacy of feeling into his conduct, as a father, a husband, a brother, or a citizen.

I would not be understood to find fault with public establishments for purposes of education, in other branches than those I have been describing. I am only endeavouring to show, in what branches a nation may wisely, and with due regard to its own interest, defray the charge out of the public purse.

Every diffusion of such knowledge, as is founded upon fact and experience, and does not proceed upon dogmatical opinions and assertions, every kind of instruction, that tends to improve the taste and understanding, is a positive good; and, consequently, an institution calculated to diffuse it must be beneficial. But care must be taken, that encouragement of one branch shall not operate to discourage another.

This is the general mischief of premiums awarded by the public; a private teacher or institution will not be adequately paid, where the same kind of instruction is to be had for nothing, though, perhaps, from inferior teachers. There is, therefore, some danger, that talent may be superseded by mediocrity; and a check be given to private exertions, from which the resources of the state might expect incalculable benefit.

But, in the vast machinery of national production, the mere manual labourer is so placed, as to earn little or nothing more than a bare subsistence. The most he can do is, to rear his young family, and bring them up to some occupation= he can- not be expected to give them that education, which we have supposed the well-being of society to require. If the commu- nity wish to have the benefit of more knowledge and intelligence in the labouring classes, it must dispense it at the pub- lic charge.

This object may be obtained by the establishment of primary schools, of reading, writing, and arithmetic. These are the groundwork of all knowledge, and are quite sufficient for the civilization of the lower classes. In fact, one can not call a nation civilized, nor consequently possessed of the benefits of civilization, until the people at large be instructed in these three particulars= till then it will be but partially reclaimed from barbarism. With tile help of these advantages alone, it may safely be affirmed, that no transcendent genius or superior mind will long remain in obscurity, or be prevented from displaying itself to the infinite benefit of the community.

The faculty of reading alone, will, for a few dollars, put a man in possession of all that eminent men have said or done, in the line to which the bent of genius impels. Nor should the fe- male part of the creation be shut. out from this elementary education; for the public is equally interested in their civili- zation; and they are indeed the first, and often the only teach- ers of the rising generation. The only important science, which seems to me not suscep- tible of being taught at the public charge, is that of moral philosophy, which may be considered as either experimental or doctrinal. The former consists in the knowledge of moral qualities, and of the chain of connexion between events de- pendent upon human will; and forms indeed a part of the study of man, which is best pursued by social converse and inter- course. The latter is a series of maxims and precepts, pos- sessing very little influence upon human conduct, which is best guided in the relations of public and of private life, by the operation of good laws, of good education, and of good example. 56 It would be the more unpardonable in governments to ne- glect the business of education, and abandon to their present ignorance the great majority of the population in those na- tions of Europe, that pretend to the character of refinement and civilization, now that the improved methods of mutual instruction, that have been tried with such complete success, afford a ready and most economical means of universally dif- fusing knowledge amongst the inferior classes. 55 The sole encouragement to virtue and good conduct, that can be relied on, is, the interest that every body has in discover- ing and employing no persons but those of good character. Men the most independent in their circumstances want some- thing more to make them happy; that is to say, the general esteem and good opinion of their fellow-creatures; and these can only be acquired by putting on the appearance at least of estimable qualities, which it is much easier to acquire than to simulate. The influence of the sovereign or ruling body, upon the manners of the nation, is very extensive, because it em- ploys a vast number of people; but it operates less benefi- cially than that of individuals, because it is less interested in employing none but persons of integrity. If to its lukewarmness in this particular be added, the example of immorality and contempt for honesty and economy too frequently held out to people by their rulers, the corruption of national morals will be wonderfully accelerated. 57 But a nation may be rescued Thus, none but elementary and abstract science, — the high- est and the lowest branches of knowledge, are so much less favoured in the natural course of things, and so little stimu- lated by the competition of demand, as to require the aid of that authority, which is created purposely to watch over the public interests. Not that individuals have no interest in the support and promotion of these, as well as of the other, branches of knowledge; but they have not so direct an inter- est, — the loss occasioned by their disappearance is neither so immediate nor so perceptible; a flourishing empire might 233Jean-Baptise Say, A Treatise on Political Economy These are the causes, that have a positive influence upon na- tional morality. To these must be added, the effect of educa- tion in general, in opening the eyes of mankind to their real interests, and softening the temper and disposition. Hospitals for the sick, almshouses and asylums for old age and infancy, inasmuch as they partially relieve the poorer classes from the charge of maintaining those who are natu- rally dependent on them, and thereby to allow population to advance somewhat more rapidly, have a natural tendency a little to depress the wages of labour. That depression would be greater still, if such establishments should be so multi- plied, as to take in all the sick, aged, and infants of those classes, who would then have none but themselves to provide for out of their wages. If they were entirely done away, there would be some rise of wages, although not sufficient to main- tain so large a labouring population, as may be kept up with their help; for the demand for their labour would be some- what reduced by the advance of its price. Religious instruction ought, strictly speaking, to be defrayed by the respective religious communions and societies, each of which regards the opinions of the rest as heretical, and naturally revolts at the injustice of contributing to the propa- gation of what it deems erroneous, if not criminal. From these two extreme suppositions, we may judge of the effect of those efforts to relieve indigence, which all nations have made in some degree or other; and see the reason, why the distress and relief go on increasing together, although not exactly in the same ratio. from moral degradation by the re-action of opposite causes. Colonies are, for the most part, composed of by no means the most estimable classes of the mother-country= in a very short time, however, when the hopes of return are wholly aban- doned, and the settlers have made up their minds to pass the rest of their lives in their new abode, they gradually feel the necessity of conciliating the esteem of their fellow-citizens, and the morals of the colony improve rapidly. By morals, I mean the general course of human conduct and behaviour. Most nations preserve a middle course between the two ex- tremes, affording public relief to a part only of those, who are helpless from age, infancy, or casual sickness. Of the rest they endeavour to rid themselves in one of two ways; either by requiring certain qualifications in the applicants, whether of age, of specific disease, or, perhaps, of mere interest and favouritism; or by limiting narrowly the extent of the relief, giving it upon hard terms to the applicants, or attaching some degree of shame to the acceptance. 58

Of the Charges of Public, Benevolent Institutions.

It has been much debated, whether individual distress has any title to public relief. I should say none, except inasmuch as it is an unavoidable consequence of existing social institu- tions. If infirmity and want be the effect of the social system, they have a title to public relief= provided always, that it be shown, that the same system affords no means of prevention or cure. But it would be foreign to the matter to discuss the question of right in this place.

All we need do is, to consider benevolent institutions with regard to their nature and consequences.

It is a distressing reflection, that there are no other methods of confining the number of applicants for relief within the means available to the community, except the offer of hard conditions, or the want of a patron. It were to be desired, that asylums of the more comfortable class, instead of favouritism, should be open to unmerited misfortune only; and that, to prevent improper nominations, the pretensions of the candi- date should be ascertained by the inquest of a jury. The rest can probably be protected from too great an influx of indi- gence, by no other means consistent with humanity, except the observance of severe, though impartial, discipline, suffi- cient to invest them with some degree of terror. When a community establishes at the public charge any insti- tution for benevolent purposes, it forms a kind of saving-bank, to which every member contributes a portion of his revenue, to entitle him to claim a benefit, in the event of accident or misfortune. The wealthy are generally impressed with an idea, that they shall never stand in need of public charitable relief; but a little less confidence would become them better. No man can reckon in his own case upon the continuance of good fortune, with as much certainty as upon the permanence of wants and infirmities; the former may desert him; but the lat- ter are inseparable companions. It is enough to know, that good fortune is not inexhaustible, to infuse an apprehension that it may some day or other be exhausted= one has but to look round, and this apprehension will be confirmed by the experience of numbers, whose misfortunes were to themselves quite unexpected.

This evil does not apply to the asylums devoted to invalid soldiers, and sailors. The qualification is so plain and intelli- gible, that the doors ought to be shut against none who are possessed of it; and the comforts of the institution can never increase the number of applicants. Their being nursed in the public asylums with the same domestic care and comfort, as are to be found in the homes of persons in the same class of life, and indulged in repose, and some even of the whims of old age, will undoubtedly somewhat enhance the charge, that

is to say, so far as it might prolong lives, that otherwise might fall a sacrifice to wretchedness; but this is the utmost increase of charge; and it is one, that neither patriotism nor humanity will grudge. 59 ment= this is an excellent precaution, but prevents their work- ing at such cheap rates, as to drive all competition out of the market.

Although the honour, attached to the direction and manage- ment of institutions of public benevolence, will generally at- tract the gratuitous service of the affluent and respectable part of the community, yet, when the duties become numerous and laborious, they are commonly discharged by gratuitous ad- ministrators with the most unfeeling negligence. It was prob- ably by no means wise, to subject all the hospitals of Paris to a general superintendence. At London, each hospital is sepa- rately administered; and the whole are managed with more economy and attention in consequence. A laudable emula- tion is thereby excited amongst the managers of rival estab- lishments; which affords an additional proof of the practica- bility and benefit of competition in the business of public administration.

The houses of industry, that are multiplying so rapidly in America, Holland, Germany, and France, are noble and ex- cellent institutions of public benevolence. They are designed to provide all persons of sound health with work according to their respective capacities; some of them are open to any workman out of employ, that chooses to apply; others are a kind of houses of correction, where vagrants, beggars, and offenders, are kept to work for fixed periods. Convicts have sometimes been set to hard labour in their respective voca- tions, during their confinement; whereby the public has been wholly or partially relieved from the charge of keeping up gaols, and a method contrived for reforming the morals of the criminals, and rendering them a blessings instead of a curse, to society.

Such establishments can hardly be reckoned among the items of public charge; for, the moment their production equals their consumption, they are no longer all incumbrance to any body. They are of immense benefit in a dense popula- tion, where, amidst the vast variety of occupations, some must unavoidably )e in a state of temporary inaction. The perpetual shiftings of commerce, the introduction of new processes, the withdrawing of capital from a productive concern, accidental fire, or other calamity, may throw numbers out of employ- ment; and the most deserving individual may, without any fault of his own, be reduced to the extreme of want. In these institutions, he is sure of earning at least a subsistence, if not in his own line, in one of a similar description. Of the Charges of Public Edifices and Works.

I shall not here attempt to enumerate the great variety of works requisite for the use of the public; but merely lay down some general rules, for calculating their cost to the nation. It is of- ten impossible to estimate with any tolerable accuracy the public benefit derived from them. How is one to calculate the utility, that is to say, the pleasure which the inhabitants of a city derive from a public terrace or promenade? It is a posi- tive benefit to have, within an easy distance of the close and crowded streets of a populous town, some place where the population can breathe a pure and wholesome atmosphere, and take health and exercise, under the shade of a grove, or with a verdant prospect before the eye; and where school- boys can spend their hours of recreation; yet this advantage it would be impossible to set a precise value upon.

The grand obstacle to such establishments is, the great outlay of capital they require. They are adventures of industry, and as such must be provided with a variety of tools, implements, and machines, besides raw material of different kinds to work upon. Before they can be said to maintain themselves, they must earn enough to pay the interest of the capital embarked, as well as their current expenses.

The amount of its cost, however, may be ascertained or estimated. The cost of every public work or construction con- sists:

1. Of the rent of the surface whereon it is erected; which rent amounts to what a tenant would give to the proprietor.

The favour shown them by the public authority, in the gratuitous supply of the capital and buildings, and in many other particulars. would make them interfere with private undertakings, were they not subject, on the other hand, to some peculiar disadvantages. They are obliged to confine their operations to such kinds of work, as sort with the feebleness and general inferiority in skill of the inmates, and can not direct them to such as may be most in demand.

Moreover, it is in most of them a matter of regulation and police, to lay by always the third or fourth part of the labourer’s wages or earnings, as a capital to set him up, on his quitting the establish-

2. Of the interest of the capital expended in the erection.

3. Of the annual charge of maintenance.

Sometimes, one or more of these items may be curtailed. When the soil, whereon a public work is erected, will fetch nothing from either a purchaser, or a tenant, the public will be charged with nothing in the nature of rent; for no rent could be got if the spot had never been built on. A bridge, for instance, costs

the consumer. 62 Were we to calculate what would be the charge of carriage upon all the articles and commodities that now pass along any road in the course of a year, if the road did not exist, and compare it with the utmost charge under present circumstances, the whole difference that would appear, will be so much gain to the consumers of all those articles, and so much positive and clear net profit to the community. 63 nothing but the interest of the capital expended in its con- struction, and the annual charge of keeping it in repair.

If it be suffered to fall into decay, the public consumes, annually, the agency of the capital vested, reckoned in the shape of interest on the sum expended, and, gradually, the capital itself, into the bargain; for, as soon as the bridge ceases to be passable, not only is the agency or rent of she capital lost, but the capital is gone likewise.

Canals are still more beneficial; for in them the saving of carriage is still more considerable. 64

Supposing one of the dikes in Holland to have cost in the outset, 20,000 dollars; the annual charge on the score of in- terest, at 5 per cent, will be 1000 dollars; and, if it cost 600 dollars more in the keeping it up, the total annual charge will be 1600 dollars.

Public works of no utility, such as palaces, triumphal arches, monumental columns, and the like, are items of national luxury. They are equally indefensible, with instances of private prodigality. The unsatisfactory gratification afforded by them to the vanity of the prince or the people, by no means balances the cost, and often the misery they have occasioned.

The same mode of reckoning may be applied to roads and canals. If a road be broader than necessary, there is annually a loss of the rent of all the superfluous land it occupies, and, besides, of all the additional charge of repair.

Many of the roads out of Paris are 180 feet wide, including the unpaved part on each side; whereas, a breadth of 60 feet would be full wide for all useful purposes, aid would be quite magnificent enough, even for the approaches to a great metropolis.

The surplus is only so much useless splendour; indeed, I hardly know how to call it so; for the narrow pavement in the centre of a broad road, the two sides of which are impassable the greater part of the year, is an equal imputation upon the liber- ality, and upon the good sense and taste of the nation.

It gives

a; disagreeable sensation, to see so much loss of space, more particularly if it be badly kept. It appears like a wish to have magnificent roads, without having the means of keeping them uniform and ill good condition; like the palaces of the Italian nobles, that never feel the effects of the broom.