The Origin of Springs

The External Earth and the Origin of Springs

[4.064] Let us consider the external Earth E, some fragments of which are concealed under the sea, others spread across fields, and others rise into mountains.

First and foremost, let us observe how easily we can understand the origin of springs and rivers in it.

Although they continually flow into the sea, its water never diminishes, nor does the sea increase or become sweet.

Since there are large cavities filled with water beneath fields and mountains, it is certain that many vapors, i.e., water particles separated and rapidly moved by the force of heat, reach the surface of the external fields and the highest ridges of mountains.

We also see many of these vapors rising even further to the clouds and ascending more easily through the Earth’s channels, supported by its particles, than through the air, whose fluid and mobile particles cannot support them in the same way.

Once these vapors have ascended, they cool down with cold, and, having lost the form of vapor, turn back into water. This water cannot descend through the same channels where vapor ascends because they are too narrow.

Instead, it finds somewhat wider paths in the intervals between the crusts or shells that constitute the entire surface of the external Earth. These underground water paths lead obliquely along the slopes of valleys and fields.

Where these subterranean water paths terminate on the surface of a mountain, valley, or field, springs emerge. The streams formed by many springs together make rivers, flowing through the sloping parts of the Earth’s surface toward the sea.

Why the sea does not increase from the rivers flowing into it.

[4.065]

Although many waters continually flow from mountains to the sea, the cavities from which they ascend can never be exhausted, nor can the sea increase.

This external Earth could not have been generated just as described a little earlier—namely, from fragments of body E falling onto the surface of body C—without retaining many very open channels for itself beneath these fragments.

Through these channels, its quantity always returns from the sea toward the roots of the mountains as much as it departs from the mountains. Thus, as the blood of animals circulates in their veins and arteries, water circulates in the veins and rivers of the Earth in a circular manner.

Why springs are not salty, nor does the sea become fresh.

[4.066] Although the sea is salty, only particles of fresh water ascend into springs because they are thin and flexible. On the other hand, salt particles, being rigid and hard, cannot easily be transformed into vapors nor pass through the oblique channels of the Earth.

Even though this fresh water continually returns to the sea through rivers, the sea does not become fresh because an equal quantity of salt always remains in it.

Why Do Some wells contain salty water?

[4.067] Salty water is found in some wells far from the sea.

When the Earth cracks in many places, it can easily happen that non-percolated salty water reaches those wells. This can occur either because the sea’s surface is as high as the well’s bottom or because, where the paths are wide enough, salty particles from fresh water easily rise upward along the slope of a hard Earth.

This phenomenon can be observed in a vessel with slightly inclined lips, as in ABC. When salty water evaporates from it, the edges of the vessel are usually covered with a crust of salt.

Why salt is extracted from some mountains.

[4.068] In some mountains, large masses of salt have congealed like stones. When the sea water ascends there, and fresh water particles continue further, only salt remains in the cavities that happened to be there, filling them.

Nitre and other salts distinct from sea salt.

[4.069] Sometimes, however, particles of salt pass through some rather narrow channels of the Earth, losing something of their shape and quantity, and transform into nitre, sal ammoniac, or something similar. Moreover, many particles of the Earth, elongated, non-branching, and quite rigid, originally had the forms of nitre and other salts.

For these forms are not located elsewhere than in the elongated, non-flexible, and non-branching nature of these particles. As different as they are, they compose various species of salt.

Vapors, Spirits, and Exhalations ascending from the interior to the exterior of the Earth

[4.070] In addition to vapors derived from waters hidden underground, many acrid spirits and oily exhalations, as well as vapors carrying particles of quicksilver and other metals, ascend from the interior to the exterior of the Earth.

All fossil substances are formed from various mixtures of these. By acrid spirits, I mean particles of acrid juices and volatile salts, separated from each other and moving so rapidly that the force with which they persistently move in all directions prevails over their gravity. By exhalations, I mean branching particles, extremely fine and moved in the same way, of oily matter. In waters, and other juices and oils, only particles swim. But in vapors, spirits, and exhalations, they fly.

How Various Mixtures Give Rise to Different Types of Stones and Other Fossils.

[4.071] Spirits fly with greater force and more easily permeate narrow channels in the Earth, where they are intercepted and adhere more firmly, making them harder substances than exhalations or vapors. Given the significant diversity among these three, due to the differences in the particles they consist of, many kinds of stones and other non-transparent fossils arise.

This occurs when they are trapped in narrow channels of the Earth and mixed with its particles. Additionally, many types of transparent fossils and gems are formed when they are first gathered in the cracks and cavities of the Earth as juices and gradually, with their most slippery and fluid particles departing, the remaining ones adhere to each other.

How Do Metals Reach the Exterior from the Interior? How is Cinnabar Formed?

[4.072] Similarly, vapors of quicksilver, by creeping through the Earth’s crevices and larger channels, leave particles of other metals mixed in them and thus saturate them with gold, silver, lead, and others.

These vapors then continue further due to their exceptional fluidity or flow back downward or sometimes linger there when the channels through which they could retreat are blocked by sulphurous exhalations.

At such times, the particles of quicksilver, covered with the finest of these exhalations like down, form cinnabar. Finally, spirits and exhalations bring certain metals such as copper, iron, and antimony from the interior to the exterior of the Earth.

Why Metals are not Found Everywhere in the Earth.

[4.073] These metals mostly ascend from those parts of the interior Earth where fragments of the exterior are immediately connected.

For example, in this figure, from point 5 towards point V, because they cannot rise through waters. Hence, metals are not found everywhere in the Earth.

Why are Metals Mainly Found at the Roots of Mountains, Facing South and East?

[4.074] These metals usually tend to rise toward the roots of mountains, as indicated by point V. This is because there, the Earth fractures more than in other places.

They gather mainly in those parts of the mountains that face south or east because there is more heat, causing them to rise.

Therefore, in those places, especially, miners usually seek them.

All Mines are in the External Earth; Never Reaching the Interior by Digging.

[4.075] With persistent digging, one could ever reach the interior of the Earth.

This is because the exterior is too thick compared to human strength, and especially due to the intermediate waters, which would rise with even greater force, the deeper the place where their veins first opened, burying all miners.

Sulphur, Bitumen, Clay, and Oil

The finest particles of exhalations, as described a little earlier, consist only of pure air.

Still, they easily connect with the finer particles of spirits, making them branching and flexible. Then these branching particles, mixed with acrid and metallic juice particles, constitute sulphur.

When mixed with particles of the Earth and also heavy with many such juices, they form bitumen. When combined with the particles of the Earth and the sun, they form clay.

Finally, they turn into oil when their movement weakens to the point where they completely rely on each other.

How Earthquakes Occur

[4.077] When they move faster than they can transform into oil, if, by chance, a large quantity of them flows into the cracks and cavities of the Earth.

They produce thick and dense fumes similar to those emitted from a recently extinguished candle.

If a spark of fire is then kindled in these cavities, the fumes immediately catch fire. Suddenly rarefied, they shake the walls of their prison vigorously, especially when many spirits are mixed in.

This is how earthquakes occur.

Why Does Fire Erupt from Some Mountains?

[4.078] During these motions, sometimes that part of the Earth is shattered and opened. Flames burst forth toward the sky through the ridges of mountains.

This happens there instead of the lower places because:

• there are more cavities beneath the mountains
• the large fragments of the exterior Earth, leaning against each other, provide an easier outlet for flames than in any other places.

Even though the fissure in the Earth is closed, as soon as the flame erupts, it is possible that such a large quantity of sulphur or bitumen has been expelled from the bowels of the mountain that it continues to burn for a long time.

The fumes then collected again in the same cavities, and when ignited, easily burst forth through the same opening.

Thus, some mountains are infamous for frequent such fires, like Mount Etna in Sicily, Mount Vesuvius in Campania, Mount Hekla in Iceland, etc.

Why Multiple Shocks Tend to Occur in an Earthquake, Sometimes Lasting for Hours or Days.

[4.079] Earthquakes sometimes last for several hours or days because there is not usually just one continuous cavity where dense and inflammable fumes are collected. Rather there are several separate ones saturated with much sulphur or bitumen.

When an eruption occurs in one and ignites the Earth, some delay occurs before the flame, passing through sulphur-filled channels, can reach others.