https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/ Recent content in Treatise on Man on Superphysics Hugo en Thu, 12 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/preface/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/preface/ <p>The leaders of more solid doctrine have long complained that simple and clear Truth has been obscured by intricate and thorny subtleties, through a misplaced diligence.</p> <!-- To them, nothing seemed more unjust than the barren mask of truth, lying with difficult trifles and the subtleties of shadowy disputes and contentions, pretending to be true Wisdom, having invaded the sacred seat of truth. And nothing is more shameful than to give undoubted assent to slippery opinions solely for the sake of custom or sect, or some other prejudice. To judge imprudently before things are clearly and distinctly understood. And so, from the Intellect, the Lord and Dictator of all things, to make itself a slave to its own inconstancy and to the desires of others. Thus detesting the yoke of received servitude, they ardently desired with the most fervent wishes that divine Wisdom might finally be liberated from the deceptions of opinions. Yet very few have lent helping hands to this noble work. --> <!-- Of those driven by a desire for Truth of a nobler kind, some have aimed only to uncover errors, not to correct them: they have hesitated and disputed, not learnedly demonstrated, and have stopped at refutations. But others, even after rejecting certain false opinions, have substituted true ones, but soon, by the same fate as those attempts, which decorate a new roof while threatening ruin, they have proven to be perishable. Until finally, --> <p>By God&rsquo;s favor, Renatus Des Cartes, after various trials, restored oppressed Sophia to her former freedom and dignity.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/preface2/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/preface2/ <p>§. 2. Therefore, the argument collapses, by which the unwary have persuaded themselves that brute animals are endowed with cognitive souls, solely derived from the movements of their own members, if it shall have been established that those movements are caused solely by the disposition of the organs and spirits, without the assistance of cognition, will, or appetite.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-01/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-01/ <h2 id="1-men-have-a-soul-and-a-body">1. Men have a soul and a body.</h2> <!-- These men will be composed, like us, of a soul and a body. --> <!-- ; and I must first describe to you the body separately, then the soul also separately, and finally I must show you how these two natures must be joined and united to compose men who resemble us. --> <!-- ## Body --> <!-- nothing other than a statue or --> <h2 id="2-the-body-is-a-machine-of-earth-which-god-forms-on-purpose-to-make-it-as-similar-to-us-as-possible">2. The body is a machine of earth which God forms on purpose to make it as similar to us as possible.</h2> <p>He gives its outside the color and shape of all our members, but he also puts on its inside the color and shape of our bodies.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-05/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-05/ <!-- 5. Quod autem ad illa animalia, quae pulmone prorsus carent, unum tantum in corde ventriculum habent, vel si pluribus gaudeant, continui sunt.Fig. II. et III. 6. Pulsus arteriarum dependet ab undecim pelliculis, quae valvularu minstar claudunt recluduntque introitus quatuor vasorum binis cordis ventriculis respondentium. Fig. IV. et V.Etenim pulsuum horum uno cessante, simul atque alius praesto est, valvulae duarum arteriarum orificiis affixae quàm exactissimè clausae deprehenduntur : illae verò quę in introitu duarum venarum, apertae. Ut fieri nequeat, quin duae sanguinis guttae ex duabus illis venis confestim elabantur : Altera videlicet in dextrum : Altera in sinistrum cordis ventriculum. Hae autem deinceps sanguinis guttae illicò rarefactae in spatium longè majus, quàm antè occupaverant, extenduntur : adeoque premunt clauduntque valvulas in duarum venarum introitu constitutas, eâque ratione simul impediunt, ne uberiori sanguinis copia cor obruatur : propellunt verò recluduntque duarum arteriarum valvulas, in quas promptè et vi quadam ex corde irrumpant. Unde fit, ut cor omnesque totius corporis arteriae simul intumescant. Sed rarefactus hic sanguis iterum è vestigio condensatur, aut alias partes penetrat : facitque adeo ut cor et arteriae detumescant, et valvulae in duarum arteriarum orificiis sitae claudantur, aliae verò in duarum venarum introitu rursus aperiantur, atque transitum praebeant binis sanguinis guttis, quibus cor et arteriae, haud secus quàm praecedentibus, denuò distendantur. 7. Causâ pulsus arteriarum cognitâ, non est intellectu difficile, non tàm illum sanguinem, qui in illius machinae venis continetur, quique recens ab hepate transfunditur, quàm illum, qui arteriis inest, quique jam in corde suo perfectus est, aliis ejus partibus agglutinari, atque inservire, ut restauretur quicquid continuus earum motus variaeque aliorum, quae circumstant, corporum actiones expellunt. Sanguis enim in venis contentus ab earum extremitatibus ad cor sensim refluit juxta dispositionem valvularum quarundam, quas Anatomici variis in locis infixas venis observarunt, ut manifestè satis constet idem nobis accidere. E contrà verò sanguis arterias occupans vi quadam atque pluribus pulsibus à corde ad earum extremitates propellitur, ut omnibus ejus membris facilè jungatur, et uniatur, adeoque in iisdem sistatur, eaque proinde nutriat ; quin etiam augeat, si machina humanum corpus ad hoc dispositum referat. --> <!-- Animals which have no lungs at all have only one cavity in the heart. --> <h2 id="5-some-animals-entirely-lack-lungs-and-have-only-one-ventricle-in-their-heart">5. Some animals entirely lack lungs and have only one ventricle in their heart.</h2> <p>If they have multiple ventricles, these are all consecutive to each other.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-08/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-08/ <h2 id="8-when-arteries-swell-the-blood-particles-within-them-are-dispersed-in-all-directions-to-the-roots-of-certain-filaments">8. When arteries swell, the blood particles within them are dispersed in all directions to the roots of certain filaments</h2> <p>These filaments form bones, flesh, skin, nerves, brain, and other solid parts according to the various ways they are connected and interwoven.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10/ <h2 id="10-only-the-blood-that-enters-the-brain-are-stronger-or-more-vigorous-than-those-going-to-the-reproductive-organs">10. Only the blood that enters the brain are stronger or more vigorous than those going to the reproductive organs</h2> <!-- transported to the vessels dedicated to reproduction --> <p>This is the conclusion from examining the sieve-like structure.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10b/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10b/ <!-- I will explain the structure of the nerves and muscles. I will show how --> <p>The animal spirits in the brain try to enter a nerve and immediately have the power to move a limb.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10c/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-10c/ <!-- This machine moves so diversely, like our bodies, --> <p><strong>Our bodies move so diversely due solely to the force of the animal spirits flowing from the brain into the nerves.</strong></p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-11/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-11/ <!-- 11. In order to understand more distinctly how this machine breathes, it must be noted that muscle D is one of those that lift the chest or depress the diaphragm, while its antagonist is muscle E. The animal spirits occupying the cavity of the brain M flow out through the small channel N, which is always kept open as required by nature, and they are immediately directed into the tube B F, depressing the valve F. This causes the spirits contained in muscle E to advance and stretch muscle D with their expulsion. It should also be noted that as muscle D is more fully inflated, it is increasingly compressed by the membranes surrounding it, which are arranged so that before all the spirits entering muscle E reach muscle D, they slow down their course and seem to flow back through tube B F. Therefore, those in channel M N are deflected and sent through tube C G, which they open at that moment, inflating muscle E and emptying muscle D. They continue to do this as long as the force with which the spirits in muscle D are pressed by the surrounding membranes persists and try to leave. When this force is no longer as effective, the spirits spontaneously resume their course through tube B F. Hence, these two muscles swell and deflate alternately without ever stopping. The same applies to the other muscles serving the same function. Thus, it is clear that they are all arranged in such a way that when those similar to muscle D inflate, the space containing the lungs is extended, allowing air to enter them, just as air rushes into a bag when its sides are pulled apart. But if the antagonistic muscles of these muscles swell, that space is contracted, and therefore, air is expelled. 12. Additionally, to understand how this machine swallows food contained at the back of the mouth, one must consider that muscle d is one of those that lift the root of the tongue and keep open the entrance to the trachea, through which the air that is breathed enters, while muscle e is its antagonist, meant to close this passage. This muscle, at the same time, opens the esophageal entrance so that the food contained in the mouth can descend into the stomach, and it propels it there by lifting the tip of the tongue. Moreover, the animal spirits flowing from the cavity of the brain M through the pore or channel N, which is naturally always open, are all directly delivered to the tube B F, causing muscle D to swell and remain always in this state of turgescence when no food is found at the back of the mouth to press against it. Furthermore, this muscle is arranged so that as soon as any food is present, it immediately returns the spirits it contains through the tube B F and enables the spirits arriving through the channel N to enter muscle e through the tube C G, where they also tend to enter muscle D. This opens the esophagus and allows the food to descend into the stomach. Shortly afterward, the spirits of channel N resume their course through B F as before. From this, it can naturally be inferred, with proper analogy, how this machine sneezes, yawns, coughs, and performs various other necessary movements for expelling excretions. --> <h2 id="11-the-muscle-for-breathing-d-raises-its-chest-or-lowers-its-diaphragm">11. The muscle for breathing <code>D</code> raises its chest, or lowers its diaphragm.</h2> <p>The muscle <code>E</code> is its opposite.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-13/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-13/ <h2 id="13-how-do-external-objects-affect-the-sense-organs-and-incite-them-to-move">13. How do external objects affect the sense-organs and incite them to move?</h2> <!-- all its members in a thousand ways, one must consider that --> <p>There are fine filaments which:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-14/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-14/ <h2 id="14-the-filaments-that-make-up-the-nerve-center-of-the-tongue-be-more-easily-moved-than-those-that-assist-touch">14. The filaments that make up the nerve center of the tongue be more easily moved than those that assist touch.</h2> <!-- and serve the organs of taste can --> <p>This is because:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-16/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-16/ <h2 id="16-the-filaments-that-make-up-the-ears-are-not-as-thin-as-those-preceding-them">16. The filaments that make up the ears are not as thin as those preceding them</h2> <!-- organs of hearing . --> <p>They are arranged in the inner concavity of the ears.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-18/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-18/ <h2 id="18-the-sense-of-sight-depends-on-two-nerves-composed-of-a-vast-number-of-extremely-mobile-capillaries">18. The sense of sight depends on two nerves composed of a vast number of extremely mobile capillaries</h2> <!-- remains to be explained a little more precisely, as it pertains more to my goal. This sense also depends in this machine --> <p>These convey those various actions of the air-aether to the brain. This provides the soul with the opportunity to conceive various ideas of colors and light.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-19/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-19/ <h3 id="19-convexity-and-refraction-is-how-the-light-coming-from-objects-can-enter-through-the-pupil">19. Convexity and refraction is how the light coming from objects can enter through the pupil</h3> <!-- looking at that part of the eye --> <!-- Convexity, which affects the marked part BCB of the first tunic, and refraction, which occurs therein, is the reason why rays , so that the soul with an unmoving eye can perceive a greater number of objects than if the eye were not convex in that part. --> <!-- PBKQ --> <p>If the ray <code>YFT</code> were not refracted at point <code>B</code>, it could not pass through section <code>FF</code> and go to the optic nerve.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-19b/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-19b/ <p>The change in size that occurs in the pupil moderates the powers of vision.</p> <ul> <li>This is because when the light is more intense, it decreases.</li> <li>The pupil limits the number of rays entering the eyes so that the nerve is not offended</li> <li>But when the light is weaker, it dilates so more rays can enter</li> </ul> <p>If the light remains constant, the pupil must become larger when the object being viewed is more distant than when it is closer.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-20/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-20/ <h3 id="20-i-do-not-individually-explain-what-gives-the-soul-the-opportunity-to-conceive-all-the-differences-in-color">20. I do not individually explain what gives the soul the opportunity to conceive all the differences in color</h3> <!-- , as I have already discussed them abundantly before. --> <!-- I do not describe at length what objects pleasantly affect sight and what offend it. For it is not difficult to perceive, from what is known about other senses, that --> <p>We know that:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-20b/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-20b/ <p>The soul can visually perceive the size of objects, and other similar qualities, solely by its knowledge of the distance and position of all the points that make them up.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-21/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-21/ <h2 id="21-the-body-also-has-internal-senses">21. The body also has internal senses.</h2> <!-- Having thus explained the five external senses as they are found in this machine, it is not permissible to pass over the internal senses with silence, with which it is also equipped. --> <h2 id="22-when-the-strong-water-in-the-stomach-does-not-find-sufficient-food-there-to-consume-and-exert-its-powers-the-nerve-filaments-there-become-more-vigorously-agitated-than-usual">22. When the strong water in the stomach does not find sufficient food there to consume and exert its powers, the nerve filaments there become more vigorously agitated than usual.</h2> <!-- Therefore, when the liquid, which I mentioned above as performing the function of --> <!-- , and which immediately flows into it through the extremities of the arteries from the mass of blood, , turning them into the stomach itself, --> <p>This agitation moves the corresponding parts of the brain. From this, the soul conceives an idea of hunger.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-24/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-24/ <p>How do the animal spirits move in the ventricles of the brain and its pores?</p> <p>What functions depend on them?</p> <h2 id="24-i-call-wind-chests-the-pneumatic-operations-of-the-pipe-organs-of-churches">24. I call &lsquo;wind chests&rsquo; the pneumatic operations of the pipe organs of Churches</h2> <p>They force air into certain wind chambers.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-26/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-26/ <h2 id="26-animal-spirits-can-exist-at-different-times-in-more-or-less-abundance">26. Animal spirits can exist at different times, in more or less abundance.</h2> <p>Among themselves, their particles can be:</p> <ul> <li>more or less dense</li> <li>more or less agitated or</li> <li>more or less unequal</li> </ul> <details id="note" class="pl-6 pr-4 pb-4 my-4 rounded-lg toc shadow border border-gray-300" open> <summary class="flex items-center font-bold py-2 cursor-pointer justify-between select-none"> <span class="tracking-wide">Superphysics Note!</span> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-tabler icon-tabler-chevron-down" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" fill="none" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"> <path stroke="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0z" fill="none"></path> <polyline points="6 9 12 15 18 9"></polyline> </svg> </summary> <div class=""> The properties of animal spirits are volume, density, vibration, unity </div> </details> <p>In our body, we are affected by diverse temperaments and natural affections from:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-28/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-28/ <h2 id="28-the-pores-of-the-brain-are-like-the-gaps-between-the-threads-of-linen">28. The pores of the brain are like the gaps between the threads of linen</h2> <p>The whole brain is a texture arranged in a peculiar manner.</p> <h2 id="29-the-surface-aa-faces-the-cavities-ee">29. The surface <code>AA</code> faces the cavities <code>EE</code></h2> <figure class="text-center"> <img src="https://www.superphysics.org/graphics/bio/fig_28.jpg" alt="Brain" class="rounded-lg shadow mx-auto " loading="lazy"> <figcaption>Figure 31</figcaption> </figure> <p>It is like a fairly expanded, dense, and intricately woven plexus, resembling a mesh of crosshatched texture.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-29/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-29/ <p>The distribution of spirits explains the mechanics of the pineal gland.</p> <p>These spirits are not confined to any place.</p> <p>As they enter the ventricles of the brain <code>EE</code> through the openings <code>H</code> in the pineal gland, they immediately tend towards the tubes <code>aa</code>, which are directly opposed to them.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-30/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-30/ <h2 id="30-how-are-our-ideas-of-objects-formed-in-the-seat-of-imagination-and-common-sense">30. How are our ideas of objects formed in the seat of imagination and common sense?</h2> <p>How are they preserved in memory? How do they stir the movement of all the limbs?</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31/ <p>&ldquo;Ideas&rdquo; are any impressions received by the spirits emanating from pineal gland <code>H</code>.</p> <ul> <li>If they depend on the presence of an object then they are attributedto common sense.</li> <li>If they arise from other causes then they are attributed to imagination.</li> </ul> <!-- as I will show later --> <p>The traces of these ideas pass through the arteries into the heart. From there, they spread their rays throughout the whole blood.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31b/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31b/ <p>The pineal gland is composed of a very soft material &ndash; a substance that is not united with the substance of the brain everywhere, but is only attached to it by small arteries.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31c/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-31c/ <!-- How does the brain determine distance? of the object consists; it must be considered how much the surface changes its position, those same points refer to places so much more distant from the center of the brain, noted O, the closer they are, and the closer, the Figure 40. --> <!-- To understand how the idea of an object’s distance is formed, one must consider how --> <p>Distance perception is determined by the position of the points on the pineal gland relative to the center of the brain. They refer to:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-32/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-32/ <h2 id="32-how-do-the-spirits-enter-into-the-nerves-and-create-motion">32. How do the spirits enter into the nerves and create motion?</h2> <!-- consider the motions dependent on them. --> <p>The animal spirits will not receive the impression of a certain idea if, in the innermost part of the brain, some of the tubes:</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33/ <h2 id="33-the-senses-depend-on-6-circumstances">33. The senses depend on 6 circumstances.</h2> <!-- In order to conceive those motions similar to those by which we are naturally incited by the various actions of objects affecting our senses, I want you to consider with me --> <ol> <li>The origin of the action originates.</li> </ol> <p>This opens certain tubes into which the spirits first enter.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33b/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33b/ <p>The disposition of the filaments composing the brain&rsquo;s substance is either acquired or natural.</p> <p>The acquired one depends on all other circumstances that alter the course of the spirits.</p> <!-- , I will explain it more conveniently later. --> <h2 id="the-natural-disposition-of-these-filaments">The Natural Disposition of these Filaments</h2> <p>These filaments have channels and pores to convey the spirits which are agitated by a peculiar force* into all the nerves that they go to.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33c/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-33c/ <h2 id="how-do-the-different-qualities-of-spirits-have-the-power-to-change-their-courses">How do the different qualities of spirits have the power to change their courses?</h2> <p>This occurs especially when they are determined from elsewhere only temporarily or not at all.</p> <p>For example, assume the nerves of the stomach move to stimulate hunger into the brain through tubes <code>8</code>. In the meantime, nothing edible or drinkable is available to the senses or memory.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-35/ Thu, 12 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-35/ <p>Dreams depend:</p> <ul> <li>partly on the irregularity of the force of the spirits emerging from the pineal gland</li> <li>partly on the impressions of memory that come to mind.</li> </ul> <p>Hence, they are the same as ideas.</p> https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-36/ Thu, 12 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000 https://www.superphysics.org/research/descartes/man/article-36/ <h3 id="36-the-functions-of-the-body-are-made-possible-by-the-heart">36. The functions of the body are made possible by the heart</h3> <p>The functions of the body are:</p> <ul> <li>the digestion of food</li> <li>the pulse of the heart and arteries</li> <li>the nutrition and growth of the limbs</li> <li>respiration</li> <li>wakefulness and sleep</li> <li>the reception of light, sounds, smells, tastes, heat, and other similar qualities in the external sense organs</li> <li>the impression of ideas formed within the organ of common sense</li> <li>the preservation of these ideas in memory</li> <li>the internal movements of desire and passion</li> <li>the external movements of all the limbs</li> </ul> <p>These follow in such harmony, both in response:</p>