Commentary on the Hypotheses of Celestial Motions on Superphysics

Preface

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Our predecessors introduced a multitude of celestial spheres to preserve the apparent motion of the stars within a regular system.

It seemed highly absurd that a celestial body, being the most perfectly round, would not always move uniformly.

Petition

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

So, when I considered these things, I often thought about whether a more reasonable model of the celestial spheres could be found—one in which all apparent irregularities would depend on uniformly moving circles, as the principle of absolute motion requires. Indeed, I undertook a very difficult and almost inexplicable task, but in the end, I discovered how this could be achieved with fewer and much more fitting assumptions than had previously been proposed, provided that certain principles—called axioms—are granted, which follow in this order:

The Order of the Spheres

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The celestial spheres are arranged in the following order:

At the highest level is the sphere of the fixed stars, which is immovable and encompasses and positions all things. Beneath it is Saturn, followed by Jupiter, then Mars. Below Mars is the sphere in which we are carried (Earth). Next comes Venus, and the innermost is Mercury.

The Motions That Appear Around the Sun

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The Earth is carried along by three different motions.

Annual Revolution:

The first motion occurs in a great orbit, in which the Earth revolves around the Sun following the succession of the zodiac signs, completing a full cycle in one year, always traversing equal arcs in equal periods of time. The center of this orbit is displaced from the center of the Sun by 1/25 of its radius. Since the radius of this orbit is imperceptible in comparison to the height of the firmament, it follows that the Sun appears to move as if the Earth were positioned at the center of the universe. However, this apparent motion of the Sun is actually due to the movement of the Earth. For example, when the Earth is positioned under Capricorn, the Sun appears, by direct alignment through the diameter of the orbit, in Cancer, and so on. Due to this motion, the Sun appears to move unevenly according to its distance from the center of the orbit, as previously mentioned. The maximum variation resulting from this is about 2 degrees and one-sixth. Additionally, the Sun shifts from the center of its orbit towards a point in the firmament about 10 degrees west of the bright star in the head of Gemini. The Sun is observed at its highest altitude when the Earth is at the opposite point of its orbit, with the center of the orbit positioned between them. Not only the Earth but everything within the lunar sphere is carried along by this great orbit.

The Uniformity of Motions Should Be Referenced to the Fixed Stars Not to the Equinoxes

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Since the equinoctial points and other cardinal points of the celestial sphere undergo significant changes, anyone who attempts to determine the uniformity of the annual revolution based on them is bound to be mistaken. Observations over different eras have shown variations in this measurement.

The Moon

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Besides its annual motion, as previously mentioned, the Moon appears to move through four distinct motions. First, it completes monthly revolutions around the Earth’s center in its deferent orbit, following the order of the zodiac signs. This deferent also carries what is called the epicycle of the first inequality (or “of the argument”), which we refer to as the greater epicycle. Additionally, there is a second epicycle attached to it, which moves opposite to the reflex motion of the deferent orbit at a slightly slower pace than the monthly motion.

The Uniformity of Motions Should Be Referenced to the Fixed Stars, Not to the Equinoxes

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The 3 Superior Planets: Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars follow a similar pattern of motion. Their orbits are completely enclosed within the great annual orbit, revolving in a common center in accordance with the order of the zodiac signs. However, Saturn completes its orbit in thirty years, Jupiter in twelve years, and Mars in twenty-nine months, as though the size of their orbits affects the speed of their revolutions.

Venus

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Venus has a system of circles similar to those of the superior planets, but with different characteristics of motion. The orbit, along with its larger epicycle, completes equal revolutions in nine months, as previously mentioned.

The Motion of Mercury

Sat, 08 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

But of all celestial motions, the most marvelous is that of Mercury, which follows paths so nearly untraceable that they are not easily investigated.

Adding to the difficulty is the fact that Mercury is mostly invisible, as it moves within the rays of the Sun, appearing only for a very few days before disappearing again. Nevertheless, it too can be understood—provided that one applies a sufficiently keen intellect.